History of Gender in Western Civilization
…an overview
Some definitions
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Patriarchal/patriarchy
= male dominance over women and children in the family and over women in
society
n
Matrilinear = tracing
descent through the maternal line
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Androcentric =
focusing on males or male qualities
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Gyneocentric =
focusing on the female; emphasis on feminine interests or points of view
Forager: Hunting & Gathering Societies
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Life is sustained by foraging for food
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Nomadic lifestyle
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These societies are small and flexible, ties are
based on kinship
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Members live in nuclear families & tend to be
manogamous
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Camps range in size from about 25-200
Forager societies
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Little inequality is present in these societies
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Private property is minimal; there are no social
classes
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No rulers or specialized institutional form of
government
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Leadership is gained through personal skill &
intelligence
Forager societies
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Cooperation and non-assertiveness are highly valued
traits
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Decision making is dispersed among members of the
society
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Willingness to compromise and sensitivity to other’s
needs are valued
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These are peaceful, non-violent people
Horticultural societies
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Develops out of foraging societies
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People learned they could produce their own food
instead of depending on nature
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The first agriculture involved the hoe and digging
tools made from sticks
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Communities are more permanent
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Agriculture = slash and burn
Horticultural societies
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A surplus of resources develops including personal
possessions and tradable goods and products
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Gender differences appear
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Work requirements based on strength are important
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Male control over women is common
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Patriarchy develops
Pastoral societies
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Mobile societies must
relocate to accommodate herd animals
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Men have exclusive
ownership of herds in all know pastoral societies
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Women care for the
animals; Men trade or buy animals
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Middle Eastern and
African pastoralists are usually Islamic; South Americans are Christian
Pastoral societies
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Men own their wives and children
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Society is highly patriarchal
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Women are seen as a disruptive influence and a
threat to male control
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Women must be totally submissive to male authority
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Women are seen as pollution
Pastoral societies
n
Women are sexual
property
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Women’s virginity and
chastity are required on pain of death
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If a women is raped,
it is a dishonor to her male kin
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Women must
de-emphasize sexual attractiveness
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Women are socialized
to have low self-esteeem
Agrarian societies
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Human population growth causes the change from
pastoral, nomadic societies to agrarian societies because there is less land to
roam
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Agriculture requires stability, more work, and some
technology
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Use of plow, draft animals, fertilizer,
tool-technology and irrigation develops
Agrarian societies
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Agriculture-based economy arises in Mesopotamia and
Egypt before 3000 b.c.e.
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Plow agriculture allows production of surpluses
not possible in other societies
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Surpluses of valued commodities free large
segments of the population from subsistence production
Agrarian societies
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“Civilization” develops (establishment of cities)
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Society becomes differentiated and stratified
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Differentiation = a sociological factor that
describes how different social endeavors form different institutions: economic,
political, educational, etc.
Agrarian societies
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Stratification = different institutions and
different social classes are arranged in a hierarchy of values; some are valued more than others
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Gender stratification is high in agrarian
societies because cycles of pregnancy, lactation, and child rearing make
physical labor inaccessible to women
Agrarian societies
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Multiple social
classes develop based on the amount of surplus (material possessions) one can
accumulate
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Women perform
agricultural labor, but not the intensive labor that is directly linked to
production
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Sons become more
“useful” than daughters; women become more dependent on their husbands; society
is patriarchal
Agrarian societies
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Warfare is important
to secure more land; production and conquest become masculine virtues; feminine
virtues are less valued
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Writing begins around
this time
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Men are the elite of
“civilization” – they are better educated and have more leisure time, thus, men
become the “chroniclers” of “his-tory”
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“Her-story” is
demoted to “second-class news”
Two Critical Turning Points
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The transition from agrarian, tribal life to urban
life
•
Created an elite group of males whose power-base is
political and economic
•
They develop ideologies of female inferiority
•
Shapes the earlier patriachal systems into
institutionalized anti-female social constructs
Two Critical Turning Points
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The development of mass industrialization
•
Shifts economic production from the family to a
place separated from home
•
Women become marginal to production
•
Women become economically dependent on men; can’t
compete for valued goods
•
Women provide domestic support systems for
males
Property = power & control
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In patriarchal societies, men gained power and
control by gaining and controlling property (land).
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The warrior became important in fighting for land
and control.
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More property means more power which means more
control of other people.
Property & Sexual Behavior
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Men had to control women’s sexual behavior if they
were to dominate the social structure and laws of society.
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Lands & estates = power; males wanted land
passed down through the paternal line; paternity is extremely important!
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Men controlled women’s sexual behavior to be sure a
male child was his own.
EARLY GODDESS CULTURES
The shift from “Goddess” to “God”:
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Most Western religions picture “God” as a male
figure
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Recent research reveals that the female diety, in
the form of the Goddess, was worshipped ancient times
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Goddess cultures developed before the discovery of
writing
THE QUEST TO FIND GODDESS CULTURES
Archaeological Findings:
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Burial grounds
provide clues to a civilization’s thoughts about life
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In Paleolithic times
(around 7000 bce) figures depicting the goddess out number male figures 20 to
1.
n
Architecture of
ancient shrines indicate the predominance of “Woman” as the central religious
figure
ORAL TRADTION AND MYTHS
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Myths = sacred stories; paradigm-laden narratives
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Since concepts of the deity are beyond immediate
human experience, they ideas are interpreted or expressed through myths
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Myths make use of metaphors and illustrate truths
about reality
Myth and History
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History is the
interpretative attempt to accurately describe past events and people.
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Myth is more
intimately involved in identity formation.
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Myths describe human
beings in ways that engender self-esteem and empower individuals or
groups within a given culture.
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Myths are involved in
the process of social construction; and are equally powerful in social
deconstruction.
The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory
In a time before written records, society was centered around women who
were:
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Revered for their mysterious life-giving powers
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Honored as incarnations and priestesses of the great
goddess
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Created art and technology
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Were leaders in their communities
Triple forms of the Goddess
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Triple forms = maiden, mother, crone
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The triple forms allow her to preside over birth,
life, and death = the goddess is integrated into rites of passage
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Rites of passage are common to all human beings
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Therefore, the goddess is the central
spiritual/religious figure
Triple forms of the Goddess
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Maiden = as virgin goddess, she was revered for the
promise and potentiality of fertility; the power of reproduction
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Mother = venerated for her vital life giving power;
she nourishes the world and it’s inhabitants
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Crone = the wise woman; presides over death;
has the power of regeneration
The Myth of Matriarchy Prehistory
The great transformation occurred:
•
It may have been a sudden cataclysm or a long,
drawn-out change
•
Society was thereafter dominated by men
•
This is the culture and mindset known as patriarchy
in which we live today
The Feminist Matriarchalist
View of History & the Present
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Patriarchy did not always exist
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Patriarchy is now ending as a result of the
planetary crisis to which it has brought us
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The future is not determined
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Women’s involvement is crucial to lead the future in
a more positive direction
Recovery of the Goddess and the Future
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Awareness of women’s true history
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The future depends on the actions taken now;
patriarchy must be dismantled
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The future will be:
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A time of peace, ecological balance, and harmony
between the sexes
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A truly egalitarian society under the goddess will
be established
ANCIENT GODDESS CULTURES
Cultures of Europe & the ancient
Mediterranean World
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matrilinear societies
trace their heritage through the mother’s line
n
matrilocal societies
= the man left his place to make his home with his wife in her locale
n
matrilinear &
matrilocal societies appeared to be very peaceful
PALEOLITHIC:
35,000 - 8,000 BCE
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Livelihood = hunting and gathering
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Status of women = female figures predominate in art;
women provide most of the food by gathering
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Society = tribal, egalitarian, communal; all aspects
of life are integrated; art in deep caves indicates a “return to the womb” as
quest for sacred space
NEOLITHIC:
8,000-3,000 BCE
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Livelihood = gathering, hunting, trade, agriculture,
animal raising
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Status of Women = Catal Huyuk (Anatolia,
Turkey 6,500-5,650 bce): statues of women and goddesses abound
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Society = equality between women and men;
integration of all aspects of life = economics, religion, survival, etc.
PRECLASSICAL:
2,900 - 1,000 BCE
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Livelihood = agriculture, trade, fishing, animal
raising
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Status of Women = Minoan (Crete); pottery and
sculptures of women predominate
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Society = Minoan palaces are used by all as working
and living areas; peace for 1000 years; high level of technology
CLASSICAL GREECE AND ROME: 1,000-100 BCE
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Livelihood = trade,
conquest by war
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Status of Women = men
dominate; remnants of “Amazon” tribes led by women
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Society = slave
society specialized and stratified; the goddess is divided into “weaker”
goddesses under male-god domination; warfare between city states
n
development of ontological
dualism
PATRIARCHY: The Shift from Female to Male Deities
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The preeminence of the goddess disappeared with the
arrival of the patriarchal period during the 3rd millennium bce.
n
Patrilinear replaced matrilinear descent
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Patrilocality supplanted matrilocality
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More evidence of patriarchal cultures exists because
they are more recent
FROM GODDESS TO GOD
Archaeological findings:
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James Mellaart uses dendrochronology (tracing
time through rings on trees)
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Establishes a pattern of disruption, invasion, and
natural catastrophes of the Neolithic cultures of the Near East
n
Older goddess cultures suffered cultural regression,
stagnation, dislocation
FROM GODDESS TO GOD
Reasons for the change:
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Nomadic herding societies (Proto-Indo-Europeans) migrate
from the geographical fringes of established goddess cultures
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Nomadic hordes used metals such as copper and bronze
for weapons rather than jewelry or art
FROM GODDESS TO GOD
n
Kurgans, Indo-Aryans,
Greeks, Celts, Semetic Hebrews used force and implements of war to conquer the
goddess-worshippers
n
The goddess is
replaced with gods who glorified war
n
Peaceful equalitarian
societies are replaced with stratified hierarchical divisions; women &
slaves at the bottom
FROM GODDESS TO GOD
Evidence from burial grounds:
n
warrior/chiefs are buried in elaborate tombs with an
abundance of weapons, ornaments, and wealth
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The afterlife is ruled by male Gods
n
Wives, concubines, and slaves are sacrificed and
buried with important male warrior figures
FROM GODDESS TO GOD
Oral Traditions and Myths:
n
Patriarchal cultures created myths that supported
the ascendancy of patriarchal beliefs and practices
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roots of ontological dualism
n
alienation myths explain the separation of
the divine from the human
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God becomes creator/warrior/father
HIERARCHICAL CULTURES DEVELOP
Reasons for the Change:
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marauding warriors
caused smaller groups to unite for protection
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strong centralized
authority under a king develops = new gods are “sacred kings”
n
military elite and
priestly class develops
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patriarchy dominates
the economic, political, social, and family life
ARCHAIC STATES:
Characteristics
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A King’s power and wealth was measured by the size
of his harem
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Men control the sexuality of women by making them
slaves and concubines
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Men dominate society by controlling women’s
sexuality
n
Women are divided into acceptable and
unacceptable classes; prevents bonding
ARCHAIC STATES:
Characteristics
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Religious roles are transferred from women to men
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Priestesses were stripped of rank
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Ritual practices passed into the hands of the
priests when male gods replaced the goddess
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Only male scribes were allowed to write the sacred
history (myth)= androcentric!
GODDESS DEMYTHOLOGIZED
Creation myths:
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reflect the origin of power and order in society
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reflect the source and power of creation
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patriarchal cultures emphasized their males gods at
the expense of the goddess
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males scribes document male gods in their
written creation myths
GODDESS DEMYTHOLOGIZED
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Defeat of the Goddess by the destruction of Her
symbols
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Snakes were associated with rebirth and
regeneration, life, and wisdom, water
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Patriarchal written accounts of creation myths turn
the snake into an evil symbol
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The Goddess, by association, becomes evil -
Asherath/Astarte in Hebrew myth
GODDESS DEMYTHOLOGIZED
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Alienation myths:
answer the fundamental question - how did evil and human suffering originate?
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Patriarchal cultures
develop myths that implicate women in evil and suffering
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The story of Adam
and Eve, the snake, and Yahweh’s anger = Hebrew scripture
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See 1 Timothy 2:9-15
= patriarchal oppression of women