History of Gender in Western Civilization

…an overview

Some definitions

n Patriarchal/patriarchy = male dominance over women and children in the family and over women in society

n Matrilinear = tracing descent through the maternal line

n Androcentric = focusing on males or male qualities

n Gyneocentric = focusing on the female; emphasis on feminine interests or points of view

Forager: Hunting & Gathering Societies

n Life is sustained by foraging for food

n Nomadic lifestyle

n These societies are small and flexible, ties are based on kinship

n Members live in nuclear families & tend to be manogamous

n Camps range in size from about 25-200

Forager societies

n Little inequality is present in these societies

n Private property is minimal; there are no social classes

n No rulers or specialized institutional form of government

n Leadership is gained through personal skill & intelligence

Forager societies

n Cooperation and non-assertiveness are highly valued traits

n Decision making is dispersed among members of the society

n Willingness to compromise and sensitivity to other’s needs are valued

n These are peaceful, non-violent people

Horticultural societies

n Develops out of foraging societies

n People learned they could produce their own food instead of depending on nature

n The first agriculture involved the hoe and digging tools made from sticks

n Communities are more permanent

n Agriculture = slash and burn

Horticultural societies

n A surplus of resources develops including personal possessions and tradable goods and products

n Gender differences appear

n Work requirements based on strength are important

n Male control over women is common

n Patriarchy develops

Pastoral societies

n Mobile societies must relocate to accommodate herd animals

n Men have exclusive ownership of herds in all know pastoral societies

n Women care for the animals; Men trade or buy animals

n Middle Eastern and African pastoralists are usually Islamic; South Americans are Christian

Pastoral societies

n Men own their wives and children

n Society is highly patriarchal

n Women are seen as a disruptive influence and a threat to male control

n Women must be totally submissive to male authority

n Women are seen as pollution

Pastoral societies

n Women are sexual property

n Women’s virginity and chastity are required on pain of death

n If a women is raped, it is a dishonor to her male kin

n Women must de-emphasize sexual attractiveness

n Women are socialized to have low self-esteeem

Agrarian societies

n Human population growth causes the change from pastoral, nomadic societies to agrarian societies because there is less land to roam

n Agriculture requires stability, more work, and some technology

n Use of plow, draft animals, fertilizer, tool-technology and irrigation develops

Agrarian societies

n Agriculture-based economy arises in Mesopotamia and Egypt before 3000 b.c.e.

n Plow agriculture allows production of surpluses not possible in other societies

n Surpluses of valued commodities free large segments of the population from subsistence production

Agrarian societies

n “Civilization” develops (establishment of cities)

n Society becomes differentiated and stratified

n Differentiation = a sociological factor that describes how different social endeavors form different institutions: economic, political, educational, etc.

Agrarian societies

n Stratification = different institutions and different social classes are arranged in a hierarchy of values; some are valued more than others

n Gender stratification is high in agrarian societies because cycles of pregnancy, lactation, and child rearing make physical labor inaccessible to women

Agrarian societies

n Multiple social classes develop based on the amount of surplus (material possessions) one can accumulate

n Women perform agricultural labor, but not the intensive labor that is directly linked to production

n Sons become more “useful” than daughters; women become more dependent on their husbands; society is patriarchal

Agrarian societies

n Warfare is important to secure more land; production and conquest become masculine virtues; feminine virtues are less valued

n Writing begins around this time

n Men are the elite of “civilization” – they are better educated and have more leisure time, thus, men become the “chroniclers” of “his-tory”

n “Her-story” is demoted to “second-class news”

EARLY GODDESS CULTURES

The shift from “Goddess” to “God”:

n Most Western religions picture “God” as a male figure

n Recent research reveals that the female diety, in the form of the Goddess, was worshipped ancient times

n Goddess cultures developed before the discovery of writing

THE QUEST TO FIND GODDESS CULTURES

Archaeological Findings:

n Burial grounds provide clues to a civilization’s thoughts about life

n In Paleolithic times (around 7000 bce) figures depicting the goddess out number male figures 20 to 1.

n Architecture of ancient shrines indicate the predominance of “Woman” as the central religious figure

ORAL TRADTION AND MYTHS

n Myths = sacred stories; paradigm-laden narratives

n Since concepts of the deity are beyond immediate human experience, they ideas are interpreted or expressed through myths

n Myths make use of metaphors and illustrate truths about reality

Myth and History

n History is the interpretative attempt to accurately describe past events and people.

n Myth is more intimately involved in identity formation.

n Myths describe human beings in ways that engender self-esteem and empower individuals or groups within a given culture.

n Myths are involved in the process of social construction; and are equally powerful in social deconstruction.

The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory

In a time before written records, society was centered around women who were:

n Revered for their mysterious life-giving powers

n Honored as incarnations and priestesses of the great goddess

n Created art and technology

n Were leaders in their communities

The Myth of Matriarchy Prehistory

The great transformation occurred:

• It may have been a sudden cataclysm or a long, drawn-out change

• Society was thereafter dominated by men

• This is the culture and mindset known as patriarchy in which we live today

The Feminist Matriarchalist
View of History & the Present

n Patriarchy did not always exist

n Patriarchy is now ending as a result of the planetary crisis to which it has brought us

n The future is not determined

n Women’s involvement is crucial to lead the future in a more positive direction

Recovery of the Goddess and the Future

n Awareness of women’s true history

n The future depends on the actions taken now; patriarchy must be dismantled

n The future will be:

n A time of peace, ecological balance, and harmony between the sexes

n A truly egalitarian society under the goddess will be established

ANCIENT GODDESS CULTURES

Cultures of Europe & the ancient Mediterranean World

n matrilinear societies trace their heritage through the mother’s line

n matrilocal societies = the man left his place to make his home with his wife in her locale

n matrilinear & matrilocal societies appeared to be very peaceful

PALEOLITHIC:
35,000 - 8,000 BCE

n Livelihood = hunting and gathering

n Status of women = female figures predominate in art; women provide most of the food by gathering

n Society = tribal, egalitarian, communal; all aspects of life are integrated; art in deep caves indicates a “return to the womb” as quest for sacred space

NEOLITHIC:
8,000-3,000 BCE

n Livelihood = gathering, hunting, trade, agriculture, animal raising

n Status of Women = Catal Huyuk (Anatolia, Turkey 6,500-5,650 bce): statues of women and goddesses abound

n Society = equality between women and men; integration of all aspects of life = economics, religion, survival, etc.

PRECLASSICAL:
2,900 - 1,000 BCE

n Livelihood = agriculture, trade, fishing, animal raising

n Status of Women = Minoan (Crete); pottery and sculptures of women predominate

n Society = Minoan palaces are used by all as working and living areas; peace for 1000 years; high level of technology

CLASSICAL GREECE AND ROME: 1,000-100 BCE

n Livelihood = trade, conquest by war

n Status of Women = men dominate; remnants of “Amazon” tribes led by women

n Society = slave society specialized and stratified; the goddess is divided into “weaker” goddesses under male-god domination; warfare between city states

n development of ontological dualism

PATRIARCHY: The Shift from Female to Male Deities

n The preeminence of the goddess disappeared with the arrival of the patriarchal period during the 3rd millennium bce.

n Patrilinear replaced matrilinear descent

n Patrilocality supplanted matrilocality

n More evidence of patriarchal cultures exists because they are more recent

FROM GODDESS TO GOD

Archaeological findings:

n James Mellaart uses dendrochronology (tracing time through rings on trees)

n Establishes a pattern of disruption, invasion, and natural catastrophes of the Neolithic cultures of the Near East

n Older goddess cultures suffered cultural regression, stagnation, dislocation

FROM GODDESS TO GOD

Reasons for the change:

n Nomadic herding societies (Proto-Indo-Europeans) migrate from the geographical fringes of established goddess cultures

n Nomadic hordes used metals such as copper and bronze for weapons rather than jewelry or art

FROM GODDESS TO GOD

n Kurgans, Indo-Aryans, Greeks, Celts, Semetic Hebrews used force and implements of war to conquer the goddess-worshippers

n The goddess is replaced with gods who glorified war

n Peaceful equalitarian societies are replaced with stratified hierarchical divisions; women & slaves at the bottom

FROM GODDESS TO GOD

Evidence from burial grounds:

n warrior/chiefs are buried in elaborate tombs with an abundance of weapons, ornaments, and wealth

n The afterlife is ruled by male Gods

n Wives, concubines, and slaves are sacrificed and buried with important male warrior figures

FROM GODDESS TO GOD

Oral Traditions and Myths:

n Patriarchal cultures created myths that supported the ascendancy of patriarchal beliefs and practices

n roots of ontological dualism

n alienation myths explain the separation of the divine from the human

n God becomes creator/warrior/father

HIERARCHICAL CULTURES DEVELOP

Reasons for the Change:

n marauding warriors caused smaller groups to unite for protection

n strong centralized authority under a king develops = new gods are “sacred kings”

n military elite and priestly class develops

n patriarchy dominates the economic, political, social, and family life

ARCHAIC STATES:
Characteristics

n A King’s power and wealth was measured by the size of his harem

n Men control the sexuality of women by making them slaves and concubines

n Men dominate society by controlling women’s sexuality

n Women are divided into acceptable and unacceptable classes; prevents bonding

ARCHAIC STATES:
Characteristics

n Religious roles are transferred from women to men

n Priestesses were stripped of rank

n Ritual practices passed into the hands of the priests when male gods replaced the goddess

n Only male scribes were allowed to write the sacred history (myth)= androcentric!

GODDESS DEMYTHOLOGIZED

Creation myths:

n reflect the origin of power and order in society

n reflect the source and power of creation

n patriarchal cultures emphasized their males gods at the expense of the goddess

n males scribes document male gods in their written creation myths

GODDESS DEMYTHOLOGIZED

n Defeat of the Goddess by the destruction of Her symbols

n Snakes were associated with rebirth and regeneration, life, and wisdom, water

n Patriarchal written accounts of creation myths turn the snake into an evil symbol

n The Goddess, by association, becomes evil - Asherath/Astarte in Hebrew myth

GODDESS DEMYTHOLOGIZED

n Alienation myths: answer the fundamental question - how did evil and human suffering originate?

n Patriarchal cultures develop myths that implicate women in evil and suffering

n The story of Adam and Eve, the snake, and Yahweh’s anger = Hebrew scripture

n See 1 Timothy 2:9-15 = patriarchal oppression of women